China since Tiananmen
Authors: Joseph Fewsmith, Joseph Fewsmith
 (Z-Library)_thumbnail.jpg)
Overview
My book, ‘China Since Tiananmen,’ examines the complex interplay of elite politics, intellectual trends, and social change in China from the Tiananmen Square incident in 1989 to Hu Jintao’s consolidation of power. I trace the evolution of reform policy, the changing role of intellectuals, and the rise of nationalism. For those interested in understanding the forces shaping contemporary China, my work offers critical insights.
The target audience includes scholars, policy analysts, students, and anyone interested in Chinese politics, history, and society. The book is relevant to current debates about China’s political and economic development, its relationship with the rest of the world, and the ongoing challenges it faces, including corruption, inequality, and social unrest. ‘China Since Tiananmen’ contributes to a deeper understanding of how the CCP has managed to maintain power in the face of significant social and economic change and the growing influence of both domestic public opinion and China’s interaction with other countries, especially the United States. My hope is that it also raises better questions for understanding China’s future development.
The book’s central argument is that the post-Tiananmen period has been characterized by a redefinition of reform, a shift in intellectual discourse, the emergence of new forms of nationalism, and ongoing struggles over the role of the state. I challenge the conventional wisdom of the early 1990s that predicted the imminent collapse of the CCP and explore how the Party has adapted and reasserted its control over society. My analysis sheds light on the challenges of political succession, the changing relationship between the state and intellectuals, the interplay of ideology and pragmatism, and the role of social change in shaping policy debates.
Book Outline
1. Tiananmen and the conservative critique of reform
This chapter introduces the background to the Tiananmen Square incident, including the differing views on reform and China’s place in the world, particularly its relationship with the United States.
Key concept: Although Deng did not always adhere to the norms of collective leadership–his position as the “core” of the Party connoting something more than simply first among equals–he nevertheless advocated it in principle.
2. Deng moves to revive reform
Deng Xiaoping used his influence to revive the reform movement. He advocated for a blend of economic development and socialist principles, navigating carefully between conservative and liberal factions within the Party.
Key concept: Deng voiced the need to create sound political institutions: “If these [leadership] systems are sound, they can place restraints on the actions of bad people; if they are unsound, they can hamper the efforts of good people or indeed, in certain cases, may push them in the wrong direction.”
3. The emergence of neoconservatism
Neoconservatism emerged as a response to perceived failures of earlier reform efforts. It sought to combine market economics with a greater role for the state, particularly in managing social and political stability.
Key concept: Although Chen wanted to recentralize authority and use the power of the state to readjust China’s industrial structure, he was also very clear that he wanted to develop the role of the market.
4. The enlightenment tradition under challenge
The Enlightenment ideals that characterized the 1980s came under challenge in the 1990s. This shift was partly a response to the Tiananmen incident, which led some to question the value of Western ideas, and partly due to growing anxieties about social change, including the rise of commercialism and a decline in perceived morality.
Key concept: The new mood of the 1990s generated a mixture of traditionalism, conservatism, utopianism, and nationalism.
5. The emergence of neostatism and popular nationalism
Neostatism, with its emphasis on “state capacity,” gained prominence as concerns about social stability and declining central revenues grew. The concept of “state capacity” was juxtaposed with popular nationalism, which criticized the government for being too weak and for selling out China’s national interests.
Key concept: Survey results also revealed that many people saw conflict as prevalent in society and likely to get worse in the future.
6. Jiang Zemin’s rise to power
This chapter details Jiang Zemin’s rise to power, highlighting his initial cautious approach, his maneuvering within the Party leadership, and the events that led to his consolidating power, particularly in the wake of Deng Xiaoping’s death.
Key concept: No doubt the single most important reason for Jiang’s promotion at that critical time was his decision in May to close down the reform-minded newsweekly World Economic Herald.
7. Elite politics in an era of globalization and nationalism
In the late 1990s, elite politics intersected with new intellectual trends, particularly those focused on globalization and nationalism. These trends shaped public discourse and influenced China’s approach to international relations, particularly in the context of its bid to join the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the bombing of the Chinese Embassy in Belgrade.
Key concept: The WTO issue brought together bureaucratic and elite politics with popular concerns.
8. Hu Jintao takes over: a turn to the left?
This chapter analyzes the transition of power from Jiang Zemin to Hu Jintao. Hu’s consolidation of power, his emphasis on social justice and “harmonious society,” his response to the SARS crisis, and his attempts to redefine the Three Represents are discussed in detail.
Key concept: Hu’s emphasis on law not only continued a policy enunciated by Jiang Zemin (and, before him, Deng Xiaoping), but also marked good strategy for someone still in a precarious position politically.
Essential Questions
1. How did the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) respond to the Tiananmen Square incident and its aftermath, and what impact did it have on leadership and political dynamics?
Following the Tiananmen crackdown, many predicted the CCP’s collapse. However, the CCP quickly restored control and adapted by purging dissenters, particularly those associated with Zhao Ziyang. Deng Xiaoping, despite diminished prestige, remained the ‘core’ and selected Jiang Zemin, the Shanghai Party Secretary known for his decisive handling of the World Economic Herald incident, as general secretary. This move ensured continuity and balanced the Party, preventing a conservative takeover. The transition, while not smooth, underscored the CCP’s resilience and adaptability in crisis.
2. How did the Tiananmen incident and subsequent developments shape intellectual thought and discourse in China during the 1990s?
The post-Tiananmen period saw a shift in intellectual discourse. The idealism and cosmopolitanism of the 1980s gave way to more pragmatic, nationalistic, and often state-supporting sentiments. This shift reflected anxieties about social change, economic inequalities, and a perceived moral decline. Intellectuals grappled with the role of the state, China’s place in the world, and its cultural identity, leading to the rise of neoconservatism, the New Left, and popular nationalism.
3. What were the key social and political tensions that emerged in China during the post-Tiananmen era, and how did they influence policy debates?
As China’s economy grew and marketization took hold, concerns about social stability and the distribution of power arose. Neostatists like Hu Angang and Wang Shaoguang emphasized ‘state capacity’ and advocated for a stronger central government. Simultaneously, popular nationalism gained traction, fueled by anxieties about declining central revenues, regional inequalities, and a perceived loss of control to international forces. These tensions were manifest in debates about China’s entry into the WTO and its relationship with the United States.
4. How did Jiang Zemin consolidate his leadership in the post-Tiananmen era, and what were the key features of his political strategy?
Jiang Zemin consolidated his power by carefully navigating the competing interests within the CCP, balancing between the conservative and reformist wings, and engaging with intellectuals to build support for his policies. His leadership was pragmatic, emphasizing economic development and social stability. He also promoted the “Three Represents,” which allowed entrepreneurs to join the Party, signaling a significant shift in its composition and focus. His success in steering China through the turbulent 1990s laid the groundwork for the leadership transition to Hu Jintao.
5. How did Hu Jintao’s leadership differ from that of Jiang Zemin, and what were the key policy priorities of his administration?
Hu Jintao’s leadership marked a shift toward a more populist agenda, with an emphasis on ‘harmonious society,’ social justice, and the needs of China’s rural population. He redefined Jiang’s “Three Represents” to better reflect his own emphasis on the “people’s livelihood,
1. How did the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) respond to the Tiananmen Square incident and its aftermath, and what impact did it have on leadership and political dynamics?
Following the Tiananmen crackdown, many predicted the CCP’s collapse. However, the CCP quickly restored control and adapted by purging dissenters, particularly those associated with Zhao Ziyang. Deng Xiaoping, despite diminished prestige, remained the ‘core’ and selected Jiang Zemin, the Shanghai Party Secretary known for his decisive handling of the World Economic Herald incident, as general secretary. This move ensured continuity and balanced the Party, preventing a conservative takeover. The transition, while not smooth, underscored the CCP’s resilience and adaptability in crisis.
2. How did the Tiananmen incident and subsequent developments shape intellectual thought and discourse in China during the 1990s?
The post-Tiananmen period saw a shift in intellectual discourse. The idealism and cosmopolitanism of the 1980s gave way to more pragmatic, nationalistic, and often state-supporting sentiments. This shift reflected anxieties about social change, economic inequalities, and a perceived moral decline. Intellectuals grappled with the role of the state, China’s place in the world, and its cultural identity, leading to the rise of neoconservatism, the New Left, and popular nationalism.
3. What were the key social and political tensions that emerged in China during the post-Tiananmen era, and how did they influence policy debates?
As China’s economy grew and marketization took hold, concerns about social stability and the distribution of power arose. Neostatists like Hu Angang and Wang Shaoguang emphasized ‘state capacity’ and advocated for a stronger central government. Simultaneously, popular nationalism gained traction, fueled by anxieties about declining central revenues, regional inequalities, and a perceived loss of control to international forces. These tensions were manifest in debates about China’s entry into the WTO and its relationship with the United States.
4. How did Jiang Zemin consolidate his leadership in the post-Tiananmen era, and what were the key features of his political strategy?
Jiang Zemin consolidated his power by carefully navigating the competing interests within the CCP, balancing between the conservative and reformist wings, and engaging with intellectuals to build support for his policies. His leadership was pragmatic, emphasizing economic development and social stability. He also promoted the “Three Represents,” which allowed entrepreneurs to join the Party, signaling a significant shift in its composition and focus. His success in steering China through the turbulent 1990s laid the groundwork for the leadership transition to Hu Jintao.
5. How did Hu Jintao’s leadership differ from that of Jiang Zemin, and what were the key policy priorities of his administration?
Hu Jintao’s leadership marked a shift toward a more populist agenda, with an emphasis on ‘harmonious society,’ social justice, and the needs of China’s rural population. He redefined Jiang’s “Three Represents” to better reflect his own emphasis on the “people’s livelihood,
Key Takeaways
1. Incrementalism is a Key Feature of Chinese Reform
Neoconservatism in China advocates for gradual, incremental change. This approach recognizes the complexity of social and economic systems and the potential for unintended consequences of rapid, radical reforms. It prioritizes stability and seeks to minimize social disruption during transitions. Gradualism allows for experimentation and adaptation, learning from experience and adjusting course as needed.
Practical Application:
AI product engineers can use the principle of iterative design, releasing MVPs (minimum viable products) and gathering user feedback to inform future development. This approach allows for flexibility and responsiveness to user needs, reducing the risk of investing heavily in a product that may not be successful.
2. Cultural Values Shape Perceptions and Responses
The turn away from enlightenment values in the 1990s reflects a broader shift in Chinese intellectual thought toward a more critical view of the West and a renewed interest in Chinese tradition. This shift was influenced by the perceived failures of Western models of development and the rise of anxieties about globalization and cultural imperialism. It led to a re-evaluation of China’s cultural identity and a search for alternative paths to modernization.
Practical Application:
AI systems can be trained on diverse datasets, including historical and cultural information, to avoid perpetuating biases and to generate more nuanced and contextually appropriate outputs.
3. Public Opinion Matters, Even in an Authoritarian System
The events surrounding the bombing of the Chinese Embassy in Belgrade and the subsequent protests highlighted the growing influence of public opinion in China, even in the realm of foreign policy. The government’s response, which involved both official condemnation and allowing for controlled public protests, demonstrated its awareness of the need to manage popular sentiment in an increasingly interconnected world.
Practical Application:
AI product engineers can leverage public sentiment analysis and social media monitoring to understand user needs and preferences, identify emerging trends, and manage potential public relations crises.
4. Elite Politics Remains Central to Policy-Making
Jiang Zemin’s rise to power and his consolidation of authority demonstrate the importance of strategic maneuvering within complex political environments. His ability to navigate the competing interests within the CCP, to balance between different factions, and to forge coalitions was critical to his success.
Practical Application:
AI project managers can build strong relationships with key stakeholders, anticipate potential conflicts, and develop communication strategies to navigate complex political and bureaucratic environments.
5. Social Justice and Equity are Emerging Policy Priorities
Hu Jintao’s emphasis on social justice and the ‘harmonious society’ reflects the growing awareness within the Chinese government of the social challenges presented by rapid economic development and market-oriented reforms. These challenges include growing income inequalities, corruption, environmental degradation, and rural poverty. Hu’s agenda signals a shift toward a more inclusive and equitable model of development.
Practical Application:
AI product engineers need to consider not only the technical aspects of their work but also the social and ethical implications of AI systems, including their potential impact on jobs, privacy, and equality.
1. Incrementalism is a Key Feature of Chinese Reform
Neoconservatism in China advocates for gradual, incremental change. This approach recognizes the complexity of social and economic systems and the potential for unintended consequences of rapid, radical reforms. It prioritizes stability and seeks to minimize social disruption during transitions. Gradualism allows for experimentation and adaptation, learning from experience and adjusting course as needed.
Practical Application:
AI product engineers can use the principle of iterative design, releasing MVPs (minimum viable products) and gathering user feedback to inform future development. This approach allows for flexibility and responsiveness to user needs, reducing the risk of investing heavily in a product that may not be successful.
2. Cultural Values Shape Perceptions and Responses
The turn away from enlightenment values in the 1990s reflects a broader shift in Chinese intellectual thought toward a more critical view of the West and a renewed interest in Chinese tradition. This shift was influenced by the perceived failures of Western models of development and the rise of anxieties about globalization and cultural imperialism. It led to a re-evaluation of China’s cultural identity and a search for alternative paths to modernization.
Practical Application:
AI systems can be trained on diverse datasets, including historical and cultural information, to avoid perpetuating biases and to generate more nuanced and contextually appropriate outputs.
3. Public Opinion Matters, Even in an Authoritarian System
The events surrounding the bombing of the Chinese Embassy in Belgrade and the subsequent protests highlighted the growing influence of public opinion in China, even in the realm of foreign policy. The government’s response, which involved both official condemnation and allowing for controlled public protests, demonstrated its awareness of the need to manage popular sentiment in an increasingly interconnected world.
Practical Application:
AI product engineers can leverage public sentiment analysis and social media monitoring to understand user needs and preferences, identify emerging trends, and manage potential public relations crises.
4. Elite Politics Remains Central to Policy-Making
Jiang Zemin’s rise to power and his consolidation of authority demonstrate the importance of strategic maneuvering within complex political environments. His ability to navigate the competing interests within the CCP, to balance between different factions, and to forge coalitions was critical to his success.
Practical Application:
AI project managers can build strong relationships with key stakeholders, anticipate potential conflicts, and develop communication strategies to navigate complex political and bureaucratic environments.
5. Social Justice and Equity are Emerging Policy Priorities
Hu Jintao’s emphasis on social justice and the ‘harmonious society’ reflects the growing awareness within the Chinese government of the social challenges presented by rapid economic development and market-oriented reforms. These challenges include growing income inequalities, corruption, environmental degradation, and rural poverty. Hu’s agenda signals a shift toward a more inclusive and equitable model of development.
Practical Application:
AI product engineers need to consider not only the technical aspects of their work but also the social and ethical implications of AI systems, including their potential impact on jobs, privacy, and equality.
Suggested Deep Dive
Chapter: Chapter 4: The Enlightenment Tradition Under Challenge
This chapter delves into the intellectual debates of the 1990s, providing a crucial understanding of how Tiananmen and the collapse of socialism in Eastern Europe influenced Chinese thinkers, leading to a reassessment of Enlightenment ideals and the rise of new intellectual trends.
Memorable Quotes
Introduction. 1
In the immediate aftermath of Tiananmen, there were widespread predictions … that the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) would collapse within a short period.
Introduction. 3
China is a very different place today than it was eighteen years ago.
Response from the Provinces. 49
No doubt the single most important reason for Jiang’s promotion at that critical time was his decision … to close down the reform-minded newsweekly World Economic Herald.
Deng’s ‘Southern Tour’. 62
The right can bury socialism, the ‘left’ can also bury socialism.
The emergence of neoconservatism. 107
Political science was a new and precarious discipline in China, and it was impossible to write rigorous political science.
Introduction. 1
In the immediate aftermath of Tiananmen, there were widespread predictions … that the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) would collapse within a short period.
Introduction. 3
China is a very different place today than it was eighteen years ago.
Response from the Provinces. 49
No doubt the single most important reason for Jiang’s promotion at that critical time was his decision … to close down the reform-minded newsweekly World Economic Herald.
Deng’s ‘Southern Tour’. 62
The right can bury socialism, the ‘left’ can also bury socialism.
The emergence of neoconservatism. 107
Political science was a new and precarious discipline in China, and it was impossible to write rigorous political science.
Comparative Analysis
Compared to other works on post-Tiananmen China like Ezra Vogel’s ‘Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China,’ my book delves deeper into the intellectual debates and changing societal dynamics of the period. While Vogel focuses primarily on Deng’s leadership and economic reforms, ‘China Since Tiananmen’ offers a more nuanced perspective by examining the evolving relationship between the state and intellectuals, the rise of nationalism, and the challenges of political succession. In contrast to works that emphasize a linear progression of reform, my book highlights the ongoing tensions and competing visions within the CCP, revealing the complexities of political and economic change. My work also engages with the perspectives of critical intellectuals who challenge the direction of reform and offer alternative models of development, providing a counterpoint to more mainstream narratives. Finally, while many accounts focus primarily on elite politics, ‘China Since Tiananmen’ examines the interplay of elite and popular forces, recognizing the increasing importance of public opinion and the changing dynamics of state-society relations.
Reflection
My book offers a deep dive into the political and intellectual currents of post-Tiananmen China, but it’s important to acknowledge potential biases and limitations. My personal interactions with Chinese intellectuals may have influenced my interpretation of their views. While I strive for objectivity, my focus on elite politics and intellectual debates may not fully capture the experiences and perspectives of ordinary Chinese citizens. Additionally, the book was published in 2008, and events in China have continued to unfold. The rise of Xi Jinping, the growing assertiveness of China on the world stage, and the tightening of political control within the country have added new dimensions to the story. Despite these limitations, ‘China Since Tiananmen’ offers valuable insights into the forces that have shaped contemporary China, revealing the complexities of its political system, the enduring influence of history and culture, and the ongoing tensions between tradition and modernization. My analysis of the evolving relationship between the state and intellectuals provides a crucial lens through which to understand the challenges and opportunities facing China as it enters the twenty-first century.
Flashcards
What does ‘monistic power’ mean in the context of Chinese politics?
Refers to the concentration of power in the hands of one individual, often seen in “strongman” leaders or authoritarian regimes.
What is meant by ‘collective leadership’?
A mode of political leadership emphasizing consultation and broad input from various elites before decision-making, in contrast to monistic power.
Define ‘neoconservatism’ as it emerged in China during the 1990s.
It emphasizes market economics alongside a significant role for the state, particularly in managing social and political stability, and it was in many ways a response to the Tiananmen Square incident and the subsequent failure of Gorbachev’s policies.
Who are the ‘neostatists’?
A group of intellectuals who advocate for a stronger state, often in the context of market-oriented reforms, emphasizing the need for effective government institutions to manage social and economic change.
What is ‘populism’?
A political ideology that promotes the interests of the common people, often in contrast to the elite. It has been used by different political forces in China, including Maoists, nationalists, and even liberals.
What is meant by ‘state capacity’?
The idea that the Chinese government should have the ability to extract resources from society, formulate and implement policies effectively, and maintain social order. Hu Angang and Wang Shaoguang are leading proponents of this concept.
What was Deng Xiaoping’s ‘Southern Tour’?
Deng Xiaoping’s famous visit to Shenzhen and other southern cities in 1992, which signaled his determination to revive and accelerate market-oriented reforms after the conservative retrenchment following Tiananmen.
What is meant by the ‘Beijing Spring’?
A period of relative political openness and intellectual ferment that occurred in China in the late 1990s, marked by a resurgence of calls for political reform.
What was the SARS crisis, and what was its significance?
A severe respiratory illness that emerged in China in 2003, revealing the government’s tendency to cover up problems and its fragility in handling public health crises.
What does ‘monistic power’ mean in the context of Chinese politics?
Refers to the concentration of power in the hands of one individual, often seen in “strongman” leaders or authoritarian regimes.
What is meant by ‘collective leadership’?
A mode of political leadership emphasizing consultation and broad input from various elites before decision-making, in contrast to monistic power.
Define ‘neoconservatism’ as it emerged in China during the 1990s.
It emphasizes market economics alongside a significant role for the state, particularly in managing social and political stability, and it was in many ways a response to the Tiananmen Square incident and the subsequent failure of Gorbachev’s policies.
Who are the ‘neostatists’?
A group of intellectuals who advocate for a stronger state, often in the context of market-oriented reforms, emphasizing the need for effective government institutions to manage social and economic change.
What is ‘populism’?
A political ideology that promotes the interests of the common people, often in contrast to the elite. It has been used by different political forces in China, including Maoists, nationalists, and even liberals.
What is meant by ‘state capacity’?
The idea that the Chinese government should have the ability to extract resources from society, formulate and implement policies effectively, and maintain social order. Hu Angang and Wang Shaoguang are leading proponents of this concept.
What was Deng Xiaoping’s ‘Southern Tour’?
Deng Xiaoping’s famous visit to Shenzhen and other southern cities in 1992, which signaled his determination to revive and accelerate market-oriented reforms after the conservative retrenchment following Tiananmen.
What is meant by the ‘Beijing Spring’?
A period of relative political openness and intellectual ferment that occurred in China in the late 1990s, marked by a resurgence of calls for political reform.
What was the SARS crisis, and what was its significance?
A severe respiratory illness that emerged in China in 2003, revealing the government’s tendency to cover up problems and its fragility in handling public health crises.